Keywords
Common carp
Mucuna pruriens seed meal
Soya bean Meal
Replacement
Mucuna pruriens seed meal
Soya bean Meal
Replacement
Abstract
Feeding trials were conducted to investigate the effect of dietary inclusion of Maize Cob Ash processed Mucuna pruriens seed meals in diets fed to Cyprinus carpio fingerlings. The processed meals were included in treatment diets as quantitative substitute for soya bean meal at 10, 20, 30, 40and 50% replacement levels and designated DII, DIII, D1V, DV and DVI respectively. A diet with 0% Mucuna served as the control (D1). The feeding trial was conducted using 12 plastic bowls (25L capacity) for the period of 56 days in three replicates. There was significant (P<0.05) difference between the treatment means for live weight gain (LWG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) of the fish fed all the treatment diets. There was no significant difference (P> 0.05) in the feed intake (FI), specific growth rate (SGR%/day), food conversion ratio (FCR), protein productive value (PPV) and apparent protein digestibility coefficient (APDC %) of fish fed D1, MCAD2 and MCAD3 diets. Analysis for cost effectiveness indicated significant differences (P<0.05) in all the treatment diets which also showed that the soya bean based control diet was not as cost effective as the lower levels (10-20%) of incorporation of MCA diet. The 20% MCA processed Mucuna diet was considered the optimum inclusion level to partially replace soya bean meal to produce a cost effective diet for C. carpio without any adverse effect on fish growth.
References
Abelghany, A. E. (2004). Replacement of herring fish meal by soybean flour in practical diets for Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus x Oreochromis mossambicus, grown in concrete tanks. Journal of Applied Aquaculture, 14: 69-87.
Adebayo, O.T., Fagbenro, O. A. and Jegede, T. (2004). Evaluation of Cassia fistula meal as a replacement for soybean meal in practical diets of Oreochromis niloticus fingerlings. Aquaculture Nutrition, 10(2): 99-104.
Akinmutimi, A. H. and Okwu, N. D. (2006). Effect of quantitative substitution of cooked Mucuna utilis seed meal for soya bean meal in broiler finisher diet. International Journal of Poultry Science 5(5): 447-481.
Alegbeleye, W. O., Odulate, D.O., Obasa, S.O. and George, F.A.O. (2005). Potential of toasted Lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus) as a substitute for full fat soya bean meal in the diets for Oreochromis niloticus fingerlings. Moor Journal of Agricultural Research, 6(2): 92-98.
AOAC (Association of Official Analytical Chemist) (2005). Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC International (18th edition). W. Horwitz and G. W. Latimer (Eds.). Arlington, Virginia.
APHA, AWWA, WCPF (American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association and Water Control Pollution Federation) (1985). Standard Methods for Examination of Water, 15th ed. Washington D.C. USA: APHA, 1976Pp.
Azaza, M. S., Wassim, K., Mensi, F., Abdemouleh, A., Brini, B. and Kraiem, M. M. (2009). Evaluation of Faba beans (Vicia faba) as a replacement for soybean meal in practical diets of juvenile Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus. Aquaculture, 287 (1-2): 174 -179.
Balogun, A. M. and Fagbenro, O. A. (1995). Use of Macadamia press cake as a protein feedstuff in practical diets for tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus. Aquaculture Research, 26 (6):371 -377.
Balogun, J. K., Auta, J., Abdullali, S. A. and Agboola, E. O. (2008). Potentials of Castor seed meal (Ricinus commnis) as feed ingredients of Oreochromis niloticus. Proceedings of the 19th Annual Conference of Fisheries Society of Nigeria (FISON), Araoye P.A. (Ed). 838-843.
Borgeson, T. L., Racz, V. J., Wilkie, D. C., White, L .J. and Drew, M. D. (2006). Effect of replacing fish meal with simple or complex mixtures of vegetable ingredients in diets fed to Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus. Aquaculture Nutrition, 12 (2):141-149.
Boyd, C.E. (1979). Water quality in warm water fish ponds.Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn University, Alabama, USA. 359Pp.
Bressani, R., Lau, M. and Silvia-Vargas, M. (2003). Protein cooking quality and residual content of dehydroxyphenylalanine and trypsin inhibitors of processed Mucuna beans (Mucuna spp). In: M.Eilita, J.Mureithi, R.Muinga, C.Sandoval, and N.Szabo (Eds), Increasing Mucuna’s Potential as a Food and Feed Crop. Proceedings of an International Workshop.23-26 September, 2002. Mombasa, Kenya. Tropical and Sub- tropical Agro-Ecosystems, 1(2-3):197-212.
Cho, C.Y., Slinger, S. J. and Bayley, H. S. (1982). Bioenergetics of salmonid fishes: Energy intake, expenditure and productivity. Compendium of Biochemical Physiology, 73: 25-41.
Cho, S. H. and Jo, J.Y. (2002). Effects of dietary energy level and number of meals on growth and body composition of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Journal of World Aquaculture Society, 33, 48-56.
Davies, S. J. and Gouveia, A. (2008). Enhancing the nutritional value of pea seed meals (Pisum sativum) by thermal treatment or specific isogenic selection with comparison to soyabean meal for African catfish, Clarias gariepinus. Aquaculture, 283(1-4): 116-122.
Davies, S. J. and Gouveia, A. (2014). Response of common carp fry fed diets containing pea seed meals (Pisum sativum) subjected to different thermal processing method. Aquaculture, 305(1):117-123.
De-Silva, S. S. and Anderson, T. A. (1995). Fish Nutrition in Aquaculture.Chapman and Hall. London. 319Pp.
De-Silva, S. S. and Gunasekera, R. M. (1989). Effect of dietary protein level and amount of plant ingredient (Phaseolus aureus) incorporated into the diet on consumption, growth performance and carcass composition in Oreochromis niloticus fry. Aquaculture, 80: 121-133.
Duncan D. B. (1955). Multiple Range and Multiple F-Tests.Biometrics, 11:1-42.
El-Hammdy, A. H. (2001). Nutritive values of corn gluten meal and sesame seed meal in feed for hybrid tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus X Oreochromis aureus). Egyptian Journal of Nutrition and Feed, 4(1): 47-66.
El-Saidy, D.M.S. D and Saad, A. S. (2008). Evaluation of cow pea seed meal, Vigna sinesis, as a dietary protein replacer for Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (L.) fingerlings. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 39(5): 636-645.
Emenalom, O. and Udedibie, A.B. (2005). Evaluation of different heat processing methods on the nutritive value of Mucuna pruriens (Velvet bean) seed meals for Broilers. International Journal of Poultry Science, 4 (8):543-548.
Eyo, A. A. (1999). The effects of different methods of soyabean, (Glysine max) processing on the growth and food utilization of African mud fish Clarias angularis, (L.) fingerlings. Nigerian Journal of Biotechnology, 10: (1) 9 – 18.
Eyo, A. A. (2001). Chemical composition and amino acid content of the commonly available feedstuffs used in fish feeds in Nigeria. In. A. A. Eyo (Eds) Proceedings of the first National Symposium on Fish Nutrition and Fish Feed Technology. 26- 29, October, 1999, Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and Marine Research (NIOMR) Lagos. 14-25.
Fagbenro, O. A., Adeparusi, O. E. and Fapohunda, O. O. (2003). Feedstuffs and dietary substitution for farmed fish in Nigeria.In:A. A. Eyo (Ed) Proceedings of the National Workshop on Fish Feed Development and Feeding Practices in Aquaculture, 15th – 19th September, 2003 National Institute for Fresh Water Fisheries Research, New Bussa, Nigeria. 60 -72.
Francis, G., Makkar, H.P.S. and Becker, K. (2001). Anti-nutritional factors present in plant derived alternate feed ingredient and their effects in fish. Aquaculture. 199:197-227.
Gaber, M. M. (2005). The effect of different levels of krill meal supplementation of soybean-based diets on feed intake, digestibility, and chemical composition of juvenile Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus, (L). Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 36(3): 346-353.
Garduno-Lugo, M. and Olvera-Novoa, M. A. (2008). Potential of the use of peanut (Arachis hypogaea) leaf meal as a partial replacement for fish meal in diets for Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Aquaculture Research, 39(12): 1299-1306.
Goda, A.M.A.S., Wafa, M.E., El-Haroun, E.R. and Chowdhury, M.A.K. (2007). Growth performance and feed utilization of Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758) and Tilapia galilae Sarotherodon galilaeus (Linnaeus 1758) fingerlings fed plant protein-based diets. Aquaculture Research, 38 (8): 827-837.
Halver, J. E. (1981). Fish Nutrition. Academic Press, Inc. Califonia, 111-151.
Hasan, A. S. and Gomah, A. S. (2006). Comparative study for carcass traits and chemical composition of some fish species grown in freshwater under Egyptian conditions. Journal of Agricultural Research, 84(1):191-201.
Hossain, M. A. and Jauncey, K. (1989). Studies on the protein and amino acid digestibility of fish meal, mustard oil cake, linseed and sesame meal for common carp (Cyprinuscarpio) Aquaculture, 83:59-72.
Hossain, M. A., Forker, U. and Berker, K. (2001). Evaluation of an unconventional legume seed, (Sesbania aculeate) as a dietary protein source for common carp (Cyprinuscarpio) Aquaculture, 198: 133-148.
Mazid, M. A., Zaher, M., Aliu, M.Z. and Nahaz, F. (1997). Formulation of cost effective feeds from locally available ingredients for Carp polyculture system for increased production. Aquaculture, 151:71-78.
Naylor, R.L., Hardy, R.W., Bureau, D.P., Chiu, A., Elliot, M., Farrel, A.P., Forster, I., Gatlin, D. M., Goldburg, R.J., Hua, K. and Nichols, P. D. (2009). Feeding aquaculture in an era of finite resources. Proceedings of National Academy of Science. USA 106:15103-1511.
Olvera-Novoa, M. A., Olivera-Castillo, L. and Martinez-Palacios, C. A. (2002). Sunflower seed meal as a protein source in diets for Tilapia rendalli (Boulanger, 1896) fingerlings. Aquaculture Research, 33(3):223-229.
Ramachandran, S. and Ray, A. K. (2004). Inclusion of extruded grasspea, Lathyrus satinus seed meal in compound diets for Rohu, (Labeo rohita) (Hamilton, 1822) fingerlings. Acta Ichthyologicaet Piscatoria, 34: 25-48.
Ramachandran, S., Bairagi, A. and Ray, A. K. (2005). Improvement of nutritive value of grass pea (Lathyrus sativus) seed meal in the formulated diets for rohu, Labeo rohita (Hamilton), fingerlings after fermentation with a fish gut bacterium. Bio-resource Technology, 96(13): 1465-1472.
Siddhuraju, P. and Becker, K. (2003). Comparative nutritional evaluation of differently processed mucuna seeds (Mucuna pruriens (L.) on growth performance, feed utilization and body composition of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Aquaculture Research, 34(6): 256.
Tacon, A.G.J. (1997). Fishmeal replacers: Review of anti-nutrients within oilseeds and pulses- a limiting factor for the Aquafeed Green Revolution. In: Tacon, A., Basurco, B (Eds.), Feeding Tomorrow’s Fish. Proceedings of the Workshop of the CIHEAM Network on technology of Aquaculture in the Mediterranean (TECAM), Jointly Organized by CIHEAM, FAO and IEO, 24-26 June1996, Mazarron, Spain. Cahiers-Options-Mediterraneennes, 22:153-182.
Tacon, A.G.J., Metian, M. and Hasan, M. R. (2009). Feed ingredient and fertilizers for farmed aquatic animals; sources and composition. FAO (Food and Aquaculture Organization (Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper, No. 540:209Pp.
Ufodike, E.B.C. and Matty, A. J. (1988). Digestibility and utilization of corn and potato based diets by rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). Journal of Aquatic Sciences, 3:1-7.
Ukachukwu, S.N., Ezeagu, I.E., Tarawali, G. and Ikeorgu, J. E. G. (2002). Utilization of Mucuna as food and feed in West Africa 189-217.In: Food and Feed from Mucuna: Current uses and the way forward, Proceedings of an International Workshop, Tegucigalpa, Honduras, April 26-29, 2000. Flores, M.B., Eilitta, M. Myhrman, R. Carew. L.B. and Carsky, R.J. (Eds.). CIDICCO.CIEPCA. Judson College, 217Pp.
Vadivel, V. and Pugalethi, M. (2009). Effect of soaking in sodium bicarbonate solution followed by autoclaving on nutritional and anti-nutritional properties of Velvet bean (Mucuna pruriens) seeds. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 33:60 -73.
Venou, B., Alexis, M., Fountoulaki, N., Negas, I., Apostolopoulou M. and Castrisi-Cathariou, I. (2003). Effect of extrusion of wheat and corn on gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurara) growth, nutrient utilization efficiency, rates of gastric evacuation and digestive enzyme activities, Aquaculture, 225:207 – 223.
Wannigama, N. D. Weerakoon, D.E.M and Mathukumarana, D. (1985). Effect of stocking
density and dietary crude protein levels on growth of O. niloticus. Fin Fish Nutrition in Asia, IDRC, 233:113-117.
Wanjekeche, E., Wakasa, V. and Mureithi, J. G. (2003). Effect of alkali, acid and Germination on nutritional composition and anti- nutritional factors of mucuna (Mucuna pruriens). In: Increasing Mucuna’s Potential as a Food and Feed Crop. J. Mureithi, R. Muinga, C. Sandoval and N. Szabo (Eds). Proceedings of an International Workshop, 23rd -26th September, 2002, Mombasa, Kenya.Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems, 1(2-3):183-192.
Wilson, R.P. (1989). Amino acids and proteins.In: J.E.Halver (eds). Fish Nutrition. Academic Press, Inc. California, 111-151.
Windell, J.T., Foltz, J.W. and Sarokon, J. A. (1978). Methods of faecal and nutrient leaching in digestibility studies. Progressive Fish Culturist 40(2):51-55.
Adebayo, O.T., Fagbenro, O. A. and Jegede, T. (2004). Evaluation of Cassia fistula meal as a replacement for soybean meal in practical diets of Oreochromis niloticus fingerlings. Aquaculture Nutrition, 10(2): 99-104.
Akinmutimi, A. H. and Okwu, N. D. (2006). Effect of quantitative substitution of cooked Mucuna utilis seed meal for soya bean meal in broiler finisher diet. International Journal of Poultry Science 5(5): 447-481.
Alegbeleye, W. O., Odulate, D.O., Obasa, S.O. and George, F.A.O. (2005). Potential of toasted Lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus) as a substitute for full fat soya bean meal in the diets for Oreochromis niloticus fingerlings. Moor Journal of Agricultural Research, 6(2): 92-98.
AOAC (Association of Official Analytical Chemist) (2005). Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC International (18th edition). W. Horwitz and G. W. Latimer (Eds.). Arlington, Virginia.
APHA, AWWA, WCPF (American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association and Water Control Pollution Federation) (1985). Standard Methods for Examination of Water, 15th ed. Washington D.C. USA: APHA, 1976Pp.
Azaza, M. S., Wassim, K., Mensi, F., Abdemouleh, A., Brini, B. and Kraiem, M. M. (2009). Evaluation of Faba beans (Vicia faba) as a replacement for soybean meal in practical diets of juvenile Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus. Aquaculture, 287 (1-2): 174 -179.
Balogun, A. M. and Fagbenro, O. A. (1995). Use of Macadamia press cake as a protein feedstuff in practical diets for tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus. Aquaculture Research, 26 (6):371 -377.
Balogun, J. K., Auta, J., Abdullali, S. A. and Agboola, E. O. (2008). Potentials of Castor seed meal (Ricinus commnis) as feed ingredients of Oreochromis niloticus. Proceedings of the 19th Annual Conference of Fisheries Society of Nigeria (FISON), Araoye P.A. (Ed). 838-843.
Borgeson, T. L., Racz, V. J., Wilkie, D. C., White, L .J. and Drew, M. D. (2006). Effect of replacing fish meal with simple or complex mixtures of vegetable ingredients in diets fed to Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus. Aquaculture Nutrition, 12 (2):141-149.
Boyd, C.E. (1979). Water quality in warm water fish ponds.Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn University, Alabama, USA. 359Pp.
Bressani, R., Lau, M. and Silvia-Vargas, M. (2003). Protein cooking quality and residual content of dehydroxyphenylalanine and trypsin inhibitors of processed Mucuna beans (Mucuna spp). In: M.Eilita, J.Mureithi, R.Muinga, C.Sandoval, and N.Szabo (Eds), Increasing Mucuna’s Potential as a Food and Feed Crop. Proceedings of an International Workshop.23-26 September, 2002. Mombasa, Kenya. Tropical and Sub- tropical Agro-Ecosystems, 1(2-3):197-212.
Cho, C.Y., Slinger, S. J. and Bayley, H. S. (1982). Bioenergetics of salmonid fishes: Energy intake, expenditure and productivity. Compendium of Biochemical Physiology, 73: 25-41.
Cho, S. H. and Jo, J.Y. (2002). Effects of dietary energy level and number of meals on growth and body composition of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Journal of World Aquaculture Society, 33, 48-56.
Davies, S. J. and Gouveia, A. (2008). Enhancing the nutritional value of pea seed meals (Pisum sativum) by thermal treatment or specific isogenic selection with comparison to soyabean meal for African catfish, Clarias gariepinus. Aquaculture, 283(1-4): 116-122.
Davies, S. J. and Gouveia, A. (2014). Response of common carp fry fed diets containing pea seed meals (Pisum sativum) subjected to different thermal processing method. Aquaculture, 305(1):117-123.
De-Silva, S. S. and Anderson, T. A. (1995). Fish Nutrition in Aquaculture.Chapman and Hall. London. 319Pp.
De-Silva, S. S. and Gunasekera, R. M. (1989). Effect of dietary protein level and amount of plant ingredient (Phaseolus aureus) incorporated into the diet on consumption, growth performance and carcass composition in Oreochromis niloticus fry. Aquaculture, 80: 121-133.
Duncan D. B. (1955). Multiple Range and Multiple F-Tests.Biometrics, 11:1-42.
El-Hammdy, A. H. (2001). Nutritive values of corn gluten meal and sesame seed meal in feed for hybrid tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus X Oreochromis aureus). Egyptian Journal of Nutrition and Feed, 4(1): 47-66.
El-Saidy, D.M.S. D and Saad, A. S. (2008). Evaluation of cow pea seed meal, Vigna sinesis, as a dietary protein replacer for Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (L.) fingerlings. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 39(5): 636-645.
Emenalom, O. and Udedibie, A.B. (2005). Evaluation of different heat processing methods on the nutritive value of Mucuna pruriens (Velvet bean) seed meals for Broilers. International Journal of Poultry Science, 4 (8):543-548.
Eyo, A. A. (1999). The effects of different methods of soyabean, (Glysine max) processing on the growth and food utilization of African mud fish Clarias angularis, (L.) fingerlings. Nigerian Journal of Biotechnology, 10: (1) 9 – 18.
Eyo, A. A. (2001). Chemical composition and amino acid content of the commonly available feedstuffs used in fish feeds in Nigeria. In. A. A. Eyo (Eds) Proceedings of the first National Symposium on Fish Nutrition and Fish Feed Technology. 26- 29, October, 1999, Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and Marine Research (NIOMR) Lagos. 14-25.
Fagbenro, O. A., Adeparusi, O. E. and Fapohunda, O. O. (2003). Feedstuffs and dietary substitution for farmed fish in Nigeria.In:A. A. Eyo (Ed) Proceedings of the National Workshop on Fish Feed Development and Feeding Practices in Aquaculture, 15th – 19th September, 2003 National Institute for Fresh Water Fisheries Research, New Bussa, Nigeria. 60 -72.
Francis, G., Makkar, H.P.S. and Becker, K. (2001). Anti-nutritional factors present in plant derived alternate feed ingredient and their effects in fish. Aquaculture. 199:197-227.
Gaber, M. M. (2005). The effect of different levels of krill meal supplementation of soybean-based diets on feed intake, digestibility, and chemical composition of juvenile Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus, (L). Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 36(3): 346-353.
Garduno-Lugo, M. and Olvera-Novoa, M. A. (2008). Potential of the use of peanut (Arachis hypogaea) leaf meal as a partial replacement for fish meal in diets for Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Aquaculture Research, 39(12): 1299-1306.
Goda, A.M.A.S., Wafa, M.E., El-Haroun, E.R. and Chowdhury, M.A.K. (2007). Growth performance and feed utilization of Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758) and Tilapia galilae Sarotherodon galilaeus (Linnaeus 1758) fingerlings fed plant protein-based diets. Aquaculture Research, 38 (8): 827-837.
Halver, J. E. (1981). Fish Nutrition. Academic Press, Inc. Califonia, 111-151.
Hasan, A. S. and Gomah, A. S. (2006). Comparative study for carcass traits and chemical composition of some fish species grown in freshwater under Egyptian conditions. Journal of Agricultural Research, 84(1):191-201.
Hossain, M. A. and Jauncey, K. (1989). Studies on the protein and amino acid digestibility of fish meal, mustard oil cake, linseed and sesame meal for common carp (Cyprinuscarpio) Aquaculture, 83:59-72.
Hossain, M. A., Forker, U. and Berker, K. (2001). Evaluation of an unconventional legume seed, (Sesbania aculeate) as a dietary protein source for common carp (Cyprinuscarpio) Aquaculture, 198: 133-148.
Mazid, M. A., Zaher, M., Aliu, M.Z. and Nahaz, F. (1997). Formulation of cost effective feeds from locally available ingredients for Carp polyculture system for increased production. Aquaculture, 151:71-78.
Naylor, R.L., Hardy, R.W., Bureau, D.P., Chiu, A., Elliot, M., Farrel, A.P., Forster, I., Gatlin, D. M., Goldburg, R.J., Hua, K. and Nichols, P. D. (2009). Feeding aquaculture in an era of finite resources. Proceedings of National Academy of Science. USA 106:15103-1511.
Olvera-Novoa, M. A., Olivera-Castillo, L. and Martinez-Palacios, C. A. (2002). Sunflower seed meal as a protein source in diets for Tilapia rendalli (Boulanger, 1896) fingerlings. Aquaculture Research, 33(3):223-229.
Ramachandran, S. and Ray, A. K. (2004). Inclusion of extruded grasspea, Lathyrus satinus seed meal in compound diets for Rohu, (Labeo rohita) (Hamilton, 1822) fingerlings. Acta Ichthyologicaet Piscatoria, 34: 25-48.
Ramachandran, S., Bairagi, A. and Ray, A. K. (2005). Improvement of nutritive value of grass pea (Lathyrus sativus) seed meal in the formulated diets for rohu, Labeo rohita (Hamilton), fingerlings after fermentation with a fish gut bacterium. Bio-resource Technology, 96(13): 1465-1472.
Siddhuraju, P. and Becker, K. (2003). Comparative nutritional evaluation of differently processed mucuna seeds (Mucuna pruriens (L.) on growth performance, feed utilization and body composition of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Aquaculture Research, 34(6): 256.
Tacon, A.G.J. (1997). Fishmeal replacers: Review of anti-nutrients within oilseeds and pulses- a limiting factor for the Aquafeed Green Revolution. In: Tacon, A., Basurco, B (Eds.), Feeding Tomorrow’s Fish. Proceedings of the Workshop of the CIHEAM Network on technology of Aquaculture in the Mediterranean (TECAM), Jointly Organized by CIHEAM, FAO and IEO, 24-26 June1996, Mazarron, Spain. Cahiers-Options-Mediterraneennes, 22:153-182.
Tacon, A.G.J., Metian, M. and Hasan, M. R. (2009). Feed ingredient and fertilizers for farmed aquatic animals; sources and composition. FAO (Food and Aquaculture Organization (Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper, No. 540:209Pp.
Ufodike, E.B.C. and Matty, A. J. (1988). Digestibility and utilization of corn and potato based diets by rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). Journal of Aquatic Sciences, 3:1-7.
Ukachukwu, S.N., Ezeagu, I.E., Tarawali, G. and Ikeorgu, J. E. G. (2002). Utilization of Mucuna as food and feed in West Africa 189-217.In: Food and Feed from Mucuna: Current uses and the way forward, Proceedings of an International Workshop, Tegucigalpa, Honduras, April 26-29, 2000. Flores, M.B., Eilitta, M. Myhrman, R. Carew. L.B. and Carsky, R.J. (Eds.). CIDICCO.CIEPCA. Judson College, 217Pp.
Vadivel, V. and Pugalethi, M. (2009). Effect of soaking in sodium bicarbonate solution followed by autoclaving on nutritional and anti-nutritional properties of Velvet bean (Mucuna pruriens) seeds. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 33:60 -73.
Venou, B., Alexis, M., Fountoulaki, N., Negas, I., Apostolopoulou M. and Castrisi-Cathariou, I. (2003). Effect of extrusion of wheat and corn on gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurara) growth, nutrient utilization efficiency, rates of gastric evacuation and digestive enzyme activities, Aquaculture, 225:207 – 223.
Wannigama, N. D. Weerakoon, D.E.M and Mathukumarana, D. (1985). Effect of stocking
density and dietary crude protein levels on growth of O. niloticus. Fin Fish Nutrition in Asia, IDRC, 233:113-117.
Wanjekeche, E., Wakasa, V. and Mureithi, J. G. (2003). Effect of alkali, acid and Germination on nutritional composition and anti- nutritional factors of mucuna (Mucuna pruriens). In: Increasing Mucuna’s Potential as a Food and Feed Crop. J. Mureithi, R. Muinga, C. Sandoval and N. Szabo (Eds). Proceedings of an International Workshop, 23rd -26th September, 2002, Mombasa, Kenya.Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems, 1(2-3):183-192.
Wilson, R.P. (1989). Amino acids and proteins.In: J.E.Halver (eds). Fish Nutrition. Academic Press, Inc. California, 111-151.
Windell, J.T., Foltz, J.W. and Sarokon, J. A. (1978). Methods of faecal and nutrient leaching in digestibility studies. Progressive Fish Culturist 40(2):51-55.